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The rich diversity of India taught Indians the value of tolerance,
creative peaceful co-existence and an implicit but clear belief in the
right of freedom of conscience for every individual. Secularism, which has
been declared to be a basic feature of the Constitution and finds a
prominent place in the Preamble to the Constitution is, therefore, a
sacred national heritage. It is one of the cardinal clauses of the Social
Contract that the people of India evolved over the centuries.
Outlook of the Early Revolutionaries:-
The rising of 1857 can be treated as the beginning of India’s fight for
freedom. The revolutionaries always treated the occupation of their
country by a colonial power to be a blatant act of aggression and
legitimately believed that they had an inherent right of armed resistance.
The period from 1912-13 to 1934 saw hectic revolutionary activity.
It needs to be appreciated that the enlightening works of Dada Bhai
Naoroji, R.C.Dutt and others made the Indians aware of the ruthless,
economic exploitation and the resultant impoverization of the Indian
people and awakened them to the economic dimension of the great loot.
Those, who believed in their right to liberate the country by all means,
had their initial inspiration from the late Nineteenth Century religious
revivalism. It was a typical blending of religion with politics. In the
early period, the revolutionaries took great inspiration from Hindu
religion. The early revolutionary organizations prominently attracted
religious Hindu youth and their most important centres were Maharashtra
and Bengal. While they were influenced also by the lives of Mazzine,
Garibaldi, Irish Revolutionaries and the histories of France and America,
their primary sources of inspiration included Gita and Anand Math (By
Bankim Chander Chatterji) and they were deeply influenced by works of
Aurobindo and Swami Vivekanand too. It must, however, be clearly
underlined that the Muslims kept away from these early revolutionary
organizations which were perceived by them as denominational. Needless to
say that the British Rulers welcomed this demarcation and spared no effort
to boost these divisive barriers.
The Period Between 1912-13 to the Era of Bhagat Singh and his comrades:
Keeping the constraints of space in mind, it is proposed to briefly deal
with the contours of secularism in the following movements:-
(i) The Great Ghadar Party,
(ii) Hindustan Republican Association (HRA): The Organization of the
Kakori Martyrs,
(iii) Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA): The Organization of
Bhagat Singh and his Comrades.
The Great Ghadar Party:-
It is unfortunate that the glorious sacrifices made by a large number of
Ghadarites have remained relatively unknown. They remain the unsung heroes
of the freedom struggle though hundreds sacrificed their lives for the
country and many more suffered transportation for life. It is our bounden
duty as Indians to educate ourselves about this golden chapter in our
history.
Ghadar Party initially, was an organization of immigrant Indians who chose
to emigrate to America and Canada. Most of them were semi literate Sikh
peasants including many Ex-soldiers who left their homes for greener
pastures. Their exposure to a democratic society shocked their conscience
and the realization of being slaves in their own country began to obsess
them. Being immigrants they learnt to stand by each other and formed
strong social bonds encompassing the entire Indian community cutting
across the religious divisions. This unity was an essential condition of
survival in a foreign land. The manner in which thousands of Ghadarites
decided to return to India for an armed revolution is nothing less than a
miracle. They initially formed “Hindi Association of Pacific Coast in
1913”. They also started a publication titled ‘Ghadar (Rebellion) as a
Tribute to the Uprising of 1857”. The word “Ghadar” caught on and the
Hindi Association became famous as ‘Ghadar Party’.
Though most of the Ghadarites were Sikh peasants with deep faith in
Sikhism, a number of Hindus and Muslims became the part and parcel of the
Organization.
Before we come to the formal clauses of the Constitution of the Ghadar
Party, it needs to be highlighted that the Indian Community in America was
emotionally and spiritually very close. It shall be worthwhile to refer to
the autobiography of Sant Baba Wasakha Singh, a Prominent Ghadarite and a
highly respected spiritual figure amongst the devout Sikhs. It is a brief
narrative recorded in Punjabi verse. Chapter 11 recalls the initiative
taken for the construction of a Gurudwara at Stockton, in America, in the
year 1911 on the occasion of the birthday of Sri Guru Gobind Singh. It is
note worthy that while giving the details of a large number of people who
congregated to set up the first Gurudwara in USA, Sant Baba Wasakha Singh
recalls that thirty five Muslims and twelve Hindu brethren also joined out
of affection – a telling illustration of India’s unity in diversity.
Baba Sohan Singh Bhakna, the founder President of Ghadar Party recalls in
his autobiography (Jeewan Sangram), the proceedings of a meeting held in
the second week of March 1913 where, inter alia, the following resolutions
were passed:-
(1) XX XX XX
(2) The object of the party was to liberate the country from the English
Rule through an armed revolution and to establish a democracy based on
equality, in a free India;
(3) to (9) XX XX XX
(10) There shall be no place for communal debate in the party. Religion
shall be a matter of individual faith;
(11) XX XX XX
(12) Members working in the party office, press, newspaper in the villages
shall not be paid any salary.
As stated earlier, Ghadar Party attracted Indians of all religious
denominations and they made heroic scarifies for the cause of freedom. A
large majority of the Indians who went to the gallows for holding the
torch of freedom aloft, were Ghadarites. Ghadar Party can legitimately
boast of Martyrs who though Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in terms of
religion, were Indians first. While the revolutionary movement within the
country was still not attracting Muslims, there were a substantial number
of Muslims not only in the ranks of Ghadar Party but also in the
leadership. The Ghadar Party was, therefore a great experiment in
demarcating the secular from the denominational and in placing Indianness
as the overarching identity, in the national consciousness.
The British Rulers took pains to keep the communal divide in place and to
further widen the gulf. All tactics were employed to ensure that the
Muslims do not join the patriotic main stream.
It is apposite to recall an incident from the autobiography of Ghadaree
Baba Harnam Singh (the expression “Ghadaree Baba” is reverently used for
former Ghadar Party cadres who survived Martyrdom and long jail
imprisonments) who was awarded the sentence of transportation for life in
the Second Lahore Conspiracy case. The extract reads as under:-
“Twelve patriots of Risala No. 23 were hanged in Ambala Jail. Eleven out
of them were Sikhs while one was a Muslim named Abdulla (Maulvi Abdulla).
Abdulla was related to an Inspector who persuaded him to become an
approver. When this relation departed, Lachman Singh Chuooslewar
(Amritsar) said ‘Maulvi Ji we are now ready to go to Next World. Why don’t
you make a statement (as approver) and slip out?’ Thereupon Maulvi Abdulla
was moved to tears and said, “I am ashamed that Sikhs are a very small
community and eleven out of them are determined to die; we are eight
crores and I am the only Muslim; and you are asking me to save myself!
Please do not segregate me. Allah is my witness. I do not want this blot
on my turban.” It is further recorded that while the convicts were being
taken to the gallows on the morning of 3.9.1915, Abdulla said, “Kindly do
not separate the twelve of us. Either all of us should be buried together
or we should be cremated together because we have to go to the next world
in unison. Till the country is free our souls shall remain in India.”
The Ghadarites were people with deep religious roots and some of them had
a highly developed spiritual dimension. All the same, this appears to have
made them even better patriots. I may be permitted to quote from the book
‘Sikhism Theology and Mysticism’ by S. Daljit Singh, the following words
regarding Sant Baba Wasakha Singh:-
“He used to observe jokingly, ‘Sikhs feel I am not a good Sikh because
most of my associates and co-workers, are communists who have no faith in
God. On the other hand, communists say that I can never be a good
communist because my first loyalty is to God.’
In the same book, it is recorded that when the news of execution of three
great patriots, i.e. Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev was conveyed to
Sant Baba Wasakha Singh, he uttered spontaneously that “they have become
Mukta”. The expression “Mukta” has been used to denote ‘liberated souls’.
I personally recall the reaction of the then head of the Namdhari Sect on
the demise of the Founder President of the Ghadar Party, Baba Sohan Singh
Bhakna in 1968, “what a great personality? He was a great communist and a
mystic at the same time!”
Before we conclude this section, it needs to be told that the rustic
Ghadarites spoke through poetry and their poems with a typical diction of
Folklore went straight to the heart. This poetry gave a message to rise
above denominational conflict while invoking the spirit of patriotism by
highlighting ruthless exploitation of the country and also appealed to
followers of all religions in the name of their own great traditions.
These earthy verses of invocations were published under the title Ghadar
Di Goonj (a clarion call of revolution), omitting the names of the
authors.
II. Hindustan Republican Association (HRA): The Organization of the Kakori
Martyrs:
The first world war witnessed the deepening of the economic crisis of
imperialism. The industry and agriculture in all the belligerent
countries, were in bad shape. There was a heavy dose of direct and
indirect taxes crushing all sections of the society. High inflation added
to the misery of the impoverished colonies and there was huge unemployment
amongst the educated middle class. The promises made during the war to
enlist the support of the colonial people, were forgotten. Fully conscious
of the political climate and stung by the wartime revolutionary movements
in Bengal, Maharashtra and Punjab, the British Government resorted to
repressive measures. Rowlatt Bill was introduced and the operation of
preventive detention laws was extended beyond six months of the war,
contrary to the original declaration. The birth of the first Socialist
State of the world, namely, Soviet Russia electrified the thinking minds
of the era. Freedom assumed a different meaning now, and democracy hence
forth would include emancipation from starvation and misery. The massacre
of Jalianwala Bagh on April 13, 1919, shook the conscience of the nation.
When Mahatma Gandhi launched the non-cooperation movement and partial
boycott of the British system, the response was unprecedented and freedom
from foreign yoke, no longer looked like a distant dream. The students,
the Government servants, the workers and the farmers joined the
non-cooperation movement by putting their heart and soul into it. The
movement was suddenly brought to a halt by Mahatma Gandhi after the
incident at Chauri Chaura on February 5, 1922. The frustration and the
anger that followed can hardly be described which also led to first ever
wide spread communal disturbances in the country. The revolutionary forces
learnt their lessons. They were more convinced than ever before that
nothing short of an armed uprising could win the national independence
promptly and with dignity. It further became clear to them that the
communal divide was a huge stumbling block in the march towards full
independence. It is in this background that Hindustan Republican
Association (HRA) was born as the first radical outfit with Muslims as its
members. In popular imagination, the movement is identified with the
Kakori Conspiracy Case. The four martyrs of the Kakori Conspiracy case are
Ram Parsad Bismil, Ashfaqullah, Rajinder Nath Lahiri and Shri Roshan
Singh. They became legendary heroes in UP and around. Jogesh Chandra
Chatterji and 15 others including young Manmatha Nath Gupta and Sachindra
Nath Bakshi were sentenced to various terms of imprisonment. Both Ram
Parsad Bismil and Ashfaqullah were persons imbued with religious
convictions and deep intellectual insight; fortunately some valuable
writings by them have survived for posterity.
The World View and ideology of Hindustan Republican Association:-
The manifesto of Hindustan Republican Association is believed to have been
drafted by Sachindra Nath Sanyal in 1924. It gives a brief outline of
social, political and economic problems confronting the country at that
time. The reading of the manifesto reveals that the revolutionaries were
keeping themselves abreast of latest national and international
developments, despite all odds. Some extracts are reproduced hereunder:-
“Let no Indian deny the existence of this revolutionary party in order to
denounce the repressive measures of the foreign rulers……. This foreign
rule must be abolished. They have no justification to rule over India
except the justification of sword and therefore the revolutionary party
had taken to the sword. But the sword of the revolutionary party bears
ideas at its edge.
The immediate object of the revolutionary party in the domain of politics
is to establish a Federal Republic of United State of India by an
organized and armed revolution. The final constitution of this Republic
shall be framed and declared at a time when the representatives of India
shall have the power to carry out their decision. But the basic principles
of this Republic will be universal suffrage and abolition of all systems
which make the exploitation of man by man possible, e.g. the railways and
other means of transportation and communication, the mines and other kinds
of very great industries such as the manufacture of steel and ships all
these shall be nationalized. In this Republic the electors shall have the
right to recall their representatives, if so desired, otherwise the
democracy shall become a mockery. In this republic, the legislature shall
have the power to control the executives and replace them whenever
necessity will arise.
The revolutionary party is not national but international in the sense
that its ultimate object is to bring harmony in the world by respecting
and guaranteeing the diverse interests of the different nations. It aims
not at competition but at cooperation between the different nations and
states and in this respect it follows the footsteps of great Indian Rishis
of the glorious past and of Bolshevik Russia in the modern age……
With regard to the communal question, the revolutionary party contemplates
to grant whatever rights the different communities may demand, provided
they do not clash with the interests of other communities and they lead
ultimately to hearty and organic union in different communities in the
near future.”
The Literature:
The members of HRA were avid Readers and it was described in the course of
the trial that they had managed to have a fairly well stocked library
despite the constraints of finance and security. Some of the books found
in the course of raids and searches made from various hideouts of the
revolutionaries were:
1. History of Mutiny
2. Secret Society of Ireland
3. Revolutions of the World
4. Nand Kumar Ki Phansi
5. Lenin
6. Life of Mazzini
7. Little Grandmother of Russian Revolution
8. Bolshevikon Ki Kartut
9. Lives of Mahatma Gandhi, Rana Pratap and Shivaji.
10. Samvad (Communism)
11. Report of the Sedition Committee
12. Rights of Labour
13. Wages Labour and Capital
14. Writings of Hardyal
15. Carlyle’s French Revolution.
16. Bandi Jeewan
Besides, the documents seized in the course of raids included the
proceedings of meeting held on 3.10.1924 and the record of resolutions
passed therein. Para 4 of the document is reproduced hereunder:-
“(a) XX XX XX
(b) to set up a campaign against the repressive laws and measures.
(c) To criticize congress activities that hinder the work of the
Association.
(d) To preach social revolutionary ideas and communistic principles.
(e) XX XX XX”
The trial judge of the supplementary Kakori Conspiracy Case (against
Ashfaqullah and Sachindra Nath Bakshi) J.R.W. Bannet I.C.S. recorded the
following conclusions:-
“The pamphlet entitled Constitution of the Hindustan Republican
Association is by far the most important document found with D.N.
Chaudhri. Copies of this Leaflet, referred to in the evidence as the
‘yellow leaflet’, were found with other alleged conspirators, as I shall
show later. It is of such a nature that there can be no possible doubt
that those responsible for it were members of a conspiracy to overturn the
present Government in India and to establish a republic. It is a somewhat
lengthy document but it must, nevertheless, I think, be reproduced in
full…..”
It is relevant to extract hereunder some of the parts of the object
clause:-
“Object:- The object of the association shall be to establish a Federated
Republic of the United States of India by an organized and armed
revolution.
XX XX XX
The basic principle of the republic shall be universal suffrage and the
abolition of all systems which make any kind of exploitation of man by man
possible.
Qualifications of a District Organizer:-
1. XX XX XX
2. XX XX XX
3. He must be able to grasp the spirit of the history of India, with
special reference to the particular civilization which India has evolved.
4. He must have faith in the mission and the destiny of a free India,
which is to bring harmony in the different spheres of human activities,
both spiritual and material.
5. XX XX XX
Provincial Council and Central Council:-
XX XX XX
XX XX XX
2. To start labour and peasant organizations. Suitable men must be engaged
on behalf of the association to organize and control the labourers in the
different factories, the railways and in the coal fields, and instil into
their minds that they are not for the revolution but that the revolution
is for them. Similarly the Kisans must also be organized.
3. To start a weekly paper in every province to propagate the idea of an
independent Indian Republic.
4. XX XX XX
5. XX XX XX”
While recording the conclusions about the conspiracy, the Judge recorded
as under:-
“…… a widespread conspiracy existed, having as its object the overthrow of
the present Government of British India and the establishment of a
republic in its place; that is to say, in the language of the first
charge, there is ample evidence to prove that a conspiracy existed to
deprive the King Emperor of the sovereignty of British India………The
existence of a secret press for propaganda and other purposes is proved by
the publication of the ‘Revolutionary’ and other pamphlets……… Finally
there is the internal evidence of the documents which have been found.
Many of them show signs of having been composed under the influence of
communistic ideas and the more important documents indicate that the
ultimate object of the revolutionaries was a peasant rising on mass.
According to the Yellow leaflet the basic principle of the republic shall
be universal suffrage and the abolition of all systems which make any kind
of exploitation of man by man possible. Part of the programmes indicated
in this leaflet is the formation of labour and peasant organizations……A
manuscript pamphlet entitled ‘Samvad’ (communism) in Hindi was recovered
from the house of Ram Prasad on his arrest (Ex.P8). it is shown by the
Examiner of Questioned Documents to be in his writing. According to this
‘It is the duty of every Hindu, while observing the principles of his own
religion, to preach communism. At every place communist societies should
be established. Every person, young or old, should become member of these
societies. There are many defects in Russian Communism. When Communism is
started in India according to the ancient Hindu religion then alone will
the world realize its true nature, because this communism will be for all
living beings. One will not be the enemy of the other, so much so, that
the very idea of violence will disappear from the world. Vedic Raj will be
established and every one will enjoy peace and happiness.”
An Alternative Political Vision:-
It is crystal clear from a reading of the documents and the literature
found from the hideouts of the HRA revolutionaries, that they were not
trigger happy young persons with no vision to unite them except the hatred
of the white man. The members of HRA were persons with a clear vision and
had a broadly defined structure of an alternative system in their minds.
They were committed to a democratic India with equal opportunity for all.
Freedom of conscience and secular outlook, is embedded in the ideology of
these revolutionaries. In the case against Ashfaqullah and Bakshi, the
prosecution relied upon a four page printed pamphlet entitled “An Appeal
to Nationalists”. The trial Judge heavily relies upon the contents of this
document to record his conclusions. It shall be appropriate to excerpt
parts of the judgment in this regard, where the document is cited:-
“In India, as in every other country, Nationalism is a revolutionary
force; it must therefore pursue a revolutionary course…….’Hindu Moslem
Unity which was made a corner stone of the Non-cooperation Movement….. has
been revealed to have been a superficial makeshift. The disastrous effects
of hinging a great political movement of an essentially revolutionary
character, on religious fanaticism, and extra-territorial patriotism are
manifest today in the communal riots which spread all over the country
despite the frantic efforts of the leaders to check them……….. That party
alone can command.. the lasting confidence of the masses, which, not in
words but in deeds, reflects the grievances and demands of the masses.
Here again realism should be the guiding principle. The every day material
needs, immediate economic demands and general earthly well being should be
the determining factors. Metaphysical prejudices should be set aside. The
appeal then states the following ten cardinal points of the programme of
the National party:-
1. National Independence; Democratic Republic based on Universal suffrage;
2. Abolition of Feudalism and Landlordism;
3. Nationalization of land: none but the cultivator will have the right of
landholding;
4 to 7 XX XX XX
8. Free and Compulsory Primary Education;
9. Freedom of Religion and Worship;
10. Right of Minorities.”
The Ideologues of HRA:-
Ram Parsad Bismil was undoubtedly the key arch of the edifice built by
HRA. He was a deeply religious person and a dedicated follower of Arya
Samaj. In his personal life he was virtually a yogi. It is interesting to
examine within the constraints of space, the manner in which he got
transformed into a powerful pillar of the revolutionary movement. His deep
emotional bond with Ashfaqullah has a special historical significance.
Ashfaqullah in the eyes of Bismil:-
In his autobiography Bismil has given a very touching account of his
relationship with Ashfaqullah. It is impossible to resist the temptation
to excerpt a part of it:-
“I vividly remember having met you in the school, when I moved to
Shahjahanpur, after the emperor’s declaration. You had a great desire to
see me and had tried to talk to me about the Mainpuri conspiracy. I gave
curt answers with a view to ignore you because I felt intrigued as to why
a Muslim student of the school is talking to me in this manner.
…. Within a few days you became like my younger brother but you were not
contented to be a younger brother only you wanted equal rights. You wanted
to be included in the category of a friend. The same happened. You became
a true friend. Everybody is surprised over this bond between a devout Arya
Samaji and a Muslim. I performed Shudhi ceremony of the Muslims
(reconversion). I was living in Arya Samaj Mandir but you did not pay any
heed to these facts. Some of my Comrades showed hatred towards you because
you were a Muslim. But you were firm in your resolve. You used to visit me
in Arya Samaj Mandir. Whenever there was a conflict between Hindus and
Muslims, the residents of your locality not only condemned but also dubbed
you as a Qafir (heretic) But you never subscribed to their views. You
always supported Hindu Muslim unity. You were a true Muslim and a true
patriot………
……..From your ways and manners many persons used to suspect that you would
give up your Islamic religion and subject yourself to Shudhi
(purification) but your heart was not impure in any sense. Therefore,
there was no question of your opting for Shudhi. …. You won. There were no
differences between you and me and many a times we had meals from the same
plate. The very idea that Hindus and Muslims are different in any manner,
left my mind………. You had a large heart and noble ideas…..
…… I am contented that you have brightened my face in the world. It shall
be recorded in the history of India as a remarkable fact that Asfhaqullah
had participated in the revolutionary movement.
……My dear brother, you will have a sense of satisfaction to appreciate
that the one, who had sacrificed the possession of his parents and turned
them into paupers, who has sacrificed the future of his own brother at the
altar of the Motherland, one who has laid down his life, body soul and
possession in the service of the Motherland and attained martyrdom, he
sacrificed his dear friend Ashfaq to at this altar of Motherland!
It is a sin, Asghar to think of self in love
Do not set foot here, along with your head.”
There cannot be a better illustration of the growth and evolution of
secularism in the revolutionary movement.
Asfhaqullah, the Towering Muslim Martyr:
Tall and handsome Asfhaqullah belonged to a relatively affluent Pathan
family. The family was in the good books of the British Rulers. The
British were keenly aware of the fact that the presence and participation
of Asfhaqullah in the forefront of the HRA movement, had a dangerous
potential, for the Imperialistic interests. Right from the time of the
arrest of Asfhaqullah, efforts were made to persuade him to adopt a pliant
course.
Despite fragmented and scanty material, it is possible to build up a broad
picture of Asfhaqullah’s personality.
Memoir’s of Asfhaqullah’s Lawyer:
Shri Kripa Shankar Hajela was in the forefront of the team of defence
lawyers who represented him during the trial. Incidentally, Late Shri
Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi and Shri C.B. Gupt were also the part of the
defence team. Hajela recalls that most of the prosecution witnesses had
been examined and it became clear that in the normal course of events,
Asfhaqullah shall be sentenced to death like Bismil and others in the main
case. At that stage, Khan Bahadur Tasadduq Hussain who remained posted as
Special CID Officer during the investigation of Kakori Conspiracy case
approached him. He expressed sympathy with Asfhaqullah and told Hajela
that Asfhaqullah belonged to a good family and had gone astray and Hajela
should save him. Hajela reacted by saying that his role was limited to
that of a Lawyer and it was apparent that the case was moving towards the
same end as the main case. Khan Bahadur suggested to Hajela that if
Asfhaqullah makes a confession and seeks pardon, he would not be sentenced
to death and there would be some scope for his release in future. Hajela
recalls that he did not expect the young man to seek pardon or to make a
confession but felt that it would be in the national interest if his life
could be saved somehow. This would also save his old mother from the
unbearable tragedy of bearing the loss of her youngest child. Hajela made
up his mind to approach Asfhaqullah and told him that if in the course of
statement he expresses regret, he could perhaps be saved from the gallows.
Hardly had Hajela started the discussion, when an apparently unhappy
Asfhaqullah retorted “Hajela Sahib do you know how much I had to persist
to engage you as a Lawyer. When the case was still pending before the
Magistrate, a number of persons had advised me to get a good Muslim Lawyer
appointed (for my defence) at State expense, because I am the only Muslim.
But I had a great trust in you from the very beginning and did not waver
but persisted that only you be engaged as my Lawyer. Never could I think
that a person like you would advise me to express regret just to save
myself from death sentence. It is not only impossible for me rather I have
no regrets at all because whatever I did, whether right or wrong, was done
with the desire to liberate the country…….”. Hajela recalls that on the
day of verdict, Asfhaqullah appeared in the court in yellow (Basanti)
dress. “The imposing bearing of this fair complexioned youth gave
everybody the impression that he was probably hopeful that he may not be
sentenced to death. However, the facts were to the contrary and
Asfhaqullah was fully conscious that he had accomplished his mission and
the moment to depart had come.”
On 17.11.1927, the two elder brothers of Asfhaqullah along with two of his
nephews visited him in Faizabad Jail. Asfhaqullah told them that they must
feel contented that their brother and uncle is dying for the country.
Hajela recalls another interesting event when the appeal of Asfhaqullah
against the judgment of the Sessions Court was dismissed by the Chief’s
Court, Hajela met him in the solitary cell of Lucknow Jail in connection
with the proposed appeal to be filed in the Privy Council. Asfhaqullah
showed him a draft of the appeal in English language which was to be
forwarded to the Government. Hajela was stunned to read the contents
because Asfhaqullah had taken the entire responsibility on himself and had
tried to vindicate the innocence of Bismil. Hajela suddenly reacted asking
him why he had written all this which was contrary to what he had stated
earlier and why was he taking steps to involve himself even deeper.
Asfhaqullah told Hajela that he was only a foot soldier whereas Ram Parsad
was their leader who was a great patriot and a brilliant person and if he
could somehow be saved, it would be very significant in the interest of
their party. Asfhaqullah wrote a small letter on December 13, 1927 to
Hajela which reads as under:-
“This very morning I received news through a telegram from the Government
about the dismissal of the appeal by the Privy Council. So as per my
information I am writing you these few lines. It is possible that you
yourself might have received the news alright.
I am altogether satisfied and cheerful as it is a Will of my Creator to
see the end of my part…… If possible come sharp and see me. I have to say
something to you and only to you.
Your’s
Devoted to Mother India
Sd/- Ashfaq”
The secular ethos of the revolutionary movement stands out very clearly
from a perusal of the available material relating to Hindustan Republican
Army. The image of a tall, handsome and large hearted Asfhaqullah
symbolizes the deep faith of the organization in the alternative vision of
a secular, republic where there was true equality. Asfhaqullah and Bismil
were deeply religious persons who found no contradiction between their
personal faith and their patriotic fervour. They were consciously
examining the relevance of socialism to a poor country like India. There
commitment to secularism was clear, conscious and unflinching.
In this context, the last message of Bismil incorporated in his
autobiography and the message addressed by Asfhaqullah to his countrymen
on the verge of his execution are valuable historical documents. Both
these writings draw up the vision of as independent secular republic based
on equality social justice and economic security.
Asfhaqullah was a poet and a writer like Bismil. Parts of his
autobiography have survived. We also have his letters and poems in Urdu to
enable us to appreciate this great patriot.
III. Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA):
The Organization of Bhagat Singh and his Comrades.
If the ideological contours of the Indian revolutionary movement for the
period in question were placed in a proper perspective, there is certainly
an element of continuity, growth and evolution. The revolutionaries were
responding to the changing world around them. The revolutionaries of the
HSRA had a legacy and heritage to build on. Bhagat Singh and his Comrades
distinctly stand out in the revolutionary movement because of their
capacity to perceive and analyze the national and international situation
much more objectively and comprehensively. They had the clearest vision of
the alternative model of the Indian society and State, which they
cherished. To a great measure, they were able to accomplish this because
many of them had the gift of great intellectual depth analytical ability
and insight. The writings of Bhagwati Charan Vohra, Sukh Dev and Bhagat
Singh show great intellectual promise and propensity for intricate
political and philosophical insights. Yashpal rose to be an eminent writer
and wrote very perceptively about his revolutionary days. Shiv Verma and
others recorded their memoirs of the period which help us to evaluate the
ideology of these revolutionaries, more objectively. Even Chander Shekhar
Azad, who in the popular imagination is identified with sheer grit and
defiance, had a clear understanding of the ideology of his organization,
as vividly recorded by Bhagwan Dass Mahaur, Sada Shiv Rao Malkapurkar and
Shiv Verma in their memoirs. Yashpal writes in Sinhawlokan, “I was very
close to Azad as close as the wearing apparel. The Agreements and
conflicts co-existed in our relationship. The ideological stance of Azad
was in tune with the vision and policy of HRSA. He was not in the lead in
the formulation of the policy or enunciation of the principles but he was
in no manner ignorant or indifferent to these principles…….
Yashpal further writes that whenever Azad heard something in the praise of
a book which shed light on the contemporary issues or on the policy and
the circumstances permitted, he would procure that book. He used to hear
translation of the contents and would participate in the debate.
Obviously, the revolutionaries of the HSRA were keen students of the
national and international scene around them and made a constant endeavour
for greater clarity in their ideological frame work. It clearly emerges
from a study of the memoirs penned by these revolutionaries that they
regularly studied books, debated the relevant issues hotly and freely
expressed their independent view points.
The Role of Bhagat Singh:-
Bhagat Singh clearly stands out as the shining star in the galaxy of
Martyrs and revolutionary patriots. He is often described as Saheed-A-Azam
– the greatest martyr. The poet’s comment while imagining his funeral was
‘Dekho Jata Hai Janaza Hind Ke Sardar Ka’. His clarity of vision, courage,
brilliant handling of the situation in the course of his trials and unique
martyrdom made him the darling of the nation. Parents named their sons
after his name even in the distant Tamilnadu.
From the writings of Bhagat Singh and works of his Comrades, one may try
to draw up a broad brush portrait. Bhagat Singh appears to be a person
with boundless zest for life and tremendous capacity to love fellow human
beings. His unusual level of energy and warmth endeared him to his
Comrades in very few meetings. It was perhaps his purity and sincerity
that explains why he became the beloved of every one. Even his casual
acquaintances including the persons placed at the lowest rung of prison
staff, were attracted to him and felt deeply attached. One may perhaps
place his humaneness at the top of the long list of his extraordinary
qualities of the head and heart. Bhagat Singh is remembered by his
companions and others as a person who had a passion for reading. Shiv
Verma realls that during his meeting in the hostel of DAV College, Kanpur,
Bhagat Singh had brought Victor Hugo’s Les Miserable with him and used to
drown himself in reading the same whenever he found time. Shiv Verma
recalls that Bhagat Singh was a voracious reader of fiction, political
writings and the history of various movements in India’s Struggle for
Freedom. Bhagat Singh inspired his Comrades to read all essential writings
and was anxious to familiarize them with socialist ideas. Bhagwan Dass
Mahaur recalls in Yash Ki Dharohar that when he and others joined
Hindustan Republican Association, they used to get their inspiration by
reciting Gita and read Sanyal’s Bandi Jeewan, Bakim’s Anand Math and
Upender Nath Bandhopadyaya’s Work on Political Conspiracy. He got the
shock of his life when he met Bhagat Singh in Agra in October, 1928 and
joined the discussions. Bhagat Singh found him ideologically blank and in
order to awaken his mind, Bhagat Singh gave Bakunin’s ‘God and the State’
to read. When Mahaur read on the title page the words ‘If God really
existed, it would be necessary to abolish him’, he felt deeply hurt
because he could not stand atheistic ideas. Bhagat Singh gave him Karl
Marx’s Das Capital but Mahaur could not understand a word. It was much
later, recalls Mahaur, when as a prisoner in the dimly lit cell of
Sabarmati Central Jail, he read a large number of books on economics and
politics besides reading Das Capital and some works of Engels. “Therefore
speaking personally, the most vital fact etched in my memory of Bhagat
Singh is his image as my first Guru who guided my orientation towards
socialism”, concludes Mahaur.
Irfan Habib in ‘To Make the Deaf Hear’ appended the writing list of Bhagat
Singh, the same is given as Appendix A to this paper.
The Great Divide:-
The revolutionary patriots were constrained to operate in impenetrable
secrecy. The print media would not give them coverage. The revolutionary
patriots suffered indescribable repression at the hands of the British
Rulers. Significantly, the British administration made sure that the
revolutionaries did not become heroes in the public eye and were perceived
either as mindless adventurers or as dacoits or lawless elements.
Handicapped by a constant resource crunch, the early revolutionary groups
resorted to selected dacoities. This greatly alienated them from the
masses as both the conservative Congress leaders as well as Colonial
Administration, dubbed them as lawless and cruel. It is in this background
that the revolutionaries of HRA had decided to loot the Government money
from the train.
The Ghadar party which was able to mobilize thousands of Indians to join
the fight for freedom and gave the sacrifice of hundreds of precious lives
at the alter of freedom struggle, remained largely unknown and unsung. It
is a constant refrain in the prison writings of Asfhaqullah that he and
his Comrades were not dacoits nor were they killers and he was greatly
hurt by the misconception against them. Bismil in his autobiography writes
in detail, about this unfortunate reality. Both Bismil and Asfhaqullah in
their last writings think of a revolution but consciously underline the
futility of the traditional revolutionary activity, which isolated them
from the masses and became a hindrance in the way of mass mobilization.
The revolutionaries of HSRA had learnt their lessons very diligently and
were acutely conscious of the need for mass contacts and for arousing the
conscience of the nation for their cause.
Naujawan Bharat Sabha and HSRA:-
The ideology and Vision:-
Naujawan Bharat Sabha was formed in Lahore in 1926. It was an open and
public organization which was intended to provide a public forum to
revolutionary activities. Bhagat Singh became its first General Secretary
while Bhagwati Charan Vohra was the propaganda Secretary. It was actively
supported by the left in the Congress including some top leaders like Dr.
Satpal, Dr. Kitchlu, Kedar Nath Sehgal and Sh. Pindi Dass. On the one hand
the Sabha propagated the lives and ideals of the Indian revolutionaries
and martyrs while on the other, it organized functions to create political
awareness. The activists of the Sabha felt the need for inculcating a
scientific temper and a rational outlook. The following passage from
Yash’s Sinhawlokan is relevant in this regard:-
“Naujawan Bharat Sabha considered communal harmony to be a very important
part of its political programme but it was not the policy of the Sabha to
appeal to the religious feelings of all communities to achieve communal
amity. Therefore, we did not raise slogans like ‘Allah-Hoo-Akbar’; ‘Sat
Sri Akal’; and ‘Har Har Mahadev’, one after the other. We had only three
slogans, ‘Inqlab Zindabad, Bande Matram and Hindustan Zindabad.’ Moreover
the Sabha considered it essential to fight ritualism and to eradicate
superstitions generated by communalists Sabha organized public lectures in
order to falsify superstitions based on dogmatic thinking built on
religious belief and further with a view to familiarize people with
scientific materialism.”
The manifesto of Naujawan Bharat Sabha, is believed to have been written
by Bhagwati Charan Vohra. The manifesto dwelt on the misery of the country
stating-
“A word about the blessings of the British rule in India. Is it necessary
to quote the whole volumes of Romesh Chandra Dutt, William Digby and
Dadabhai Naoroji in evidence to prove the decline and ruin of Indian
industries? Does it require any authorities to prove that India, with the
richest soil and mines is today one of the poorest, that India which could
be proud of so glorious a civilization, is today the most backward country
with only 5% literacy? Do not the people know that India has to pay the
largest toll of human life with the highest child death rate in the world?
The epidemics like plague, cholera, influenza and such other diseases are
becoming common day by day. Is it not disgraceful for us to hear again and
again that we are not fit for self-government? Is it not really degrading
for us, with Guru Govind Singh, Shivaji and Hari Singh as our heroes, to
be told that we are incapable of defending ourselves? Alas, we have done
little to prove the contrary. Did we not see our trade and commerce being
crushed in its very infancy in the first effort of Guru Nanak Steamship
Company started by Baba Gurdit Singh in 1914; the inhuman treatment meted
out to them far away in Canada, on the way, and finally, the bloody
reception of those despairing, broken-hearted passengers with volleys of
shots at Bajbaj and what not? Did we not see all this?”
On the prevailing communal divide in the country the manifesto made a
determined attack in following words:-
“While, we Indians, what are we doing? A branch of peepal tree is cut and
religious feelings of the Hindus are injured. A corner of a paper idol,
tazia, of the idol breaker Mohammedans is broken, and ‘Allah’ gets
enraged, who cannot be satisfied with anything less than the blood of the
infidel Hindus. Man ought to be attached more importance than the animals
and, yet, here in India, they break each other’s heads in the name of
‘sacred animals….”.
Instead of evading the questions pertaining to religion, Sabha took a
forthright stand:-
“Religious superstitions and bigotry are a great hindrance in our
progress. They have proved an obstacle in our way and we must do away with
them, ‘The thing that cannot bear free thought must perish.’ There are
many other such weaknesses which we are to overcome. The conservativeness
and orthodoxy of the Hindus, extra-territorialism and fanaticism of the
Mohammedans and narrow-mindedness of all the communities in general are
always exploited by the foreign enemy. Youngmen with revolutionary zeal
from all communities are required for the task.”
The Sabha appealed to young people of Punjab in the name of their glorious
traditions:-
“Young Punjabis, the youth of other provinces are working tremendously in
their respective spheres. The organization and awakening displayed by
young Bengal on February 3, should serve as an example to us. Our Punjab,
despite the greatest amount of sacrifice and suffering to its credit, is
described as a politically backward province. Why? Because, although it
belongs to the martial race, we are lacking in organization and
discipline; we who are proud of the ancient University of Taxila, today
stand badly in need of culture. And culture requires fine literature which
cannot be prepared without a common and well developed language. Alas, we
have got none.”
Defining the task before the Indian Youth the manifesto stated:-
“The task before the young is hard and their resources are scanty. A great
many obstacles are likely to block their way. But the earnestness of the
few but sincere can overcome them all. The young must come forth. They
must see the hard and difficult path that lies before them, the great
tasks they have to perform. They must remember in the heart of hearts that
“success is but a chance; sacrifice a law”. Their lives might be the lives
of constant failures even more wretched than those which Guru Govind Singh
had to face throughout his life. Even then they must not repent and say,
“oh, it was all an illusion.”
The manifesto gives a very lucid insight into the ideology of
revolutionaries.
The ideology of Bhagat Singh and his Comrades is brought out concisely and
with great clarity in various writings by the revolutionaries. The
statement of Bhagat Singh in the Sessions Court during the trial, is in
itself a document of great historical value.
The Manifesto of Hindustan Socialists Republican Army:-
The manifesto of HSRA published and distributed under the title “The
Philosophy of the Bomb” was written by Bhagwati Charan Vohra in response
to Gandhi’s enunciation of revolutionaries, after mid December, 1929. It
was distributed on the initiative of the revolutionaries among the
Congress delegates at the Lahore Session of the Congress, in the last week
of December, 1929. This document was seriously discussed and commented
upon by all the revolutionaries including Bhagat Singh. The Philosophy of
the Bomb is a very clear and cogent statement of the alternative vision of
the revolutionaries of the HSRA. In retaliation Gandhi’s writing ‘The Cult
of the Bomb’ was released on 26.1.1930, the first independence day
observed by the Congress all over the country, as a damage control
exercise.
Bhagat Singh’s Introduction to The Dreamland:-
“The Dreamland” was a long poem written by Lala Ram Saran Dass, an old
revolutionary. Bhagat Singh was a great admirer of old revolutionaries and
enjoyed a very warm relationship with them. The Dreamland is a political
work of a mystic and a spiritual person projecting the vision of India as
an ideal republic. It is a tribute to Bhagat Singh that he agreed to write
the foreword to this work, though he honestly recorded his differences
with the viewpoint of the author. The extracts set out hereinbelow show
the great vision, compassion and dedication of Bhagat Singh and his
Comrades:-
“In the political field The Dreamland occupies a very important place. In
the prevailing circumstance it is filling up a very important gap in the
movement. As a matter of fact all the political movements of our country
that have hitherto played an important role in our modern history, had
been lacking the ideal at the achievement of which they aimed.
Revolutionary movement is no exception. In spite of all my efforts, I
could not find any revolutionary party that had clear ideas as to what
they were fighting for, with the exception of the Ghadar Party which,
having been inspired by the USA form of government, clearly stated that
they wanted to replace the existing government by a Republican form of
government. All other parties consisted of men who had but one idea, i.e.
to fight against the alien rulers. That idea is quite laudable but cannot
be termed a revolutionary idea. We must make it clear that revolution does
not merely mean an upheaval or a sanguinary strife. Revolution necessarily
implies the programme of systematic reconstruction of society on new and
better adapted basis, after complete destruction of the existing state of
affairs (i.e., regime).
XX XX XX
…..It has another interesting fact to add to its beauty and value. L. Ram
Saran Das was sentenced to death in 1915, and the sentence was later on
commuted to life transportation. Today, sitting in the condemned cells
myself, I can let the readers know as authoritatively that the life
imprisonment is comparatively a far harder lot than that of death. L. Ram
Saran Das had actually to undergo fourteen years of imprisonment. It was
in some southern jail that he wrote this poetry. The then psychology and
mental struggle of the author has stamped its impressions upon the poetry
and makes it all the more beautiful and interesting.
XX XX XX
…..But this mysticism of the author is by no means ignoble or deplorable.
It has its own beauty and charm. The ideas are encouraging. Just look:
“Be a foundation-stone obscure,
And on thy breast cheerfully bear
The architecture vast and huge
In suffering find true refuge
Envy not the plastered top-stone,
On which all worldly praise is thrown.”
etc.etc.”
XX XX XX
….. The next thing he deals with is the mentality of a revolutionary. L.
Ram Saran Das was the member of the revolutionary party, which was held
responsible for many a violent deed. But this by no means proves that
revolutionaries are blood-thirsty monsters, seeking pleasure in
destruction. Read:
“If need be, outwardly be wild,
But in thy heart be always mild
Hiss if need be, but do not bite,
Love in thy heart and outside fight.” etc. etc.”
Lastly comes the most important part of his poetry where he deals with the
future society, which we all long to create. But I like to clear one thing
at the very outset. The Dreamland is a veritable utopia. The author has
very candidly admitted it in the title. He does not pretend to have
written a scientific thesis on the subject. The title ‘Dreamland’ makes it
clear enough. But utopias play undoubtedly a very important role in social
progress. Without St. Simon, Fourier and Robert Owen and their theories
there would have been no scientific Marxian socialism. L Ram Saran Das’
utopia occupies the same place. When our work will realize the importance
of systematizing the philosophy of their movement and of framing a
scientific outlook of the movement, then this book will be very useful to
them.
XX XX XX
World-federation is the most popular and immediate object of all the free
thinking people, and the author has well dilated on the subject, and his
criticism of the so-called League of Nations is beautiful.
XX XX XX
I have discussed the book at great length. I have rather criticized it.
But, I am not going to ask any alteration in it, because this has got its
historical value. These were the ideas of 1914-15 revolutionaries.
I strongly recommend this book to young men in particular, but with a
warning. Please do not read it to follow blindly and take for granted what
is written in it. Read it, criticize it, think over it, try to formulate
your own ideas with its help.”
The difference made by Bhagat Singh and his Comrades:-
The revolutionaries of HSRA were diligent students of history and
continued to critically examine their own methods policy and ideology.
While Bismil and Ashfaqullah lamented the great public misconception about
their aims, objectives and vision, Bhagat Singh and his companions were
able to demolish the barrier between the revolutionary thinking on the one
hand and the large Indian masses on the other. Having carefully examined
the contemporary situation, they accorded top priority to programmes which
would arouse mass consciousness and create wide awareness about their
goals and dreams among the Indian people.
To Make The Deaf Hear, Notice of Hindustan Socialist Republican
Association:-
The short leaflet thrown by Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt in the
Central Legislative Assembly Hall on April 8, 1929 was a monumental step
in this direction. The entire text is reproduced hereunder:-
“It takes a loud voice to make the deaf hear.” With these immortal words
uttered on a similar occasion by Valliant, a Fresh anarchist martyr, do we
strongly justify this action of ours.
Without repeating the humiliating history of the past ten years of the
working of the reforms and without mentioning the insults hurled down on
the head of the Indian nation through this House, the so-called Indian
Parliament, we see that this time again, while the people expecting some
more crumbs of reforms from the Simon Commission, are ever quarrelling
over the distribution of the expected bones, the Govt. is thrusting upon
us new repressive measures like those of the Public Safety and Trade
Disputes Bill, while reserving the Press Sedition Bill for the next
session. The indiscriminate arrests of labour leaders working in the open
field clearly indicate whither the wind blows.
In these extremely provocative circumstances, the Hindustan Socialist
Republican Association, in all seriousness, realizing the full
responsibility, had decided and ordered its army to do this particular
action, so that a stop be put to this humiliating farce and to let the
alien bureaucratic exploiters do what they wish, but to make them come
before the public eye in their naked form.
Let the representatives of the people return to their constituencies and
prepare the masses for the coming revolution. And let the Government know
that, while protesting against the Public Safety and Trade Disputes Bills
and the callous murder of Lala Lajpat Rai on behalf of the helpless Indian
masses, we want to emphasise the lesson often repeated by history that it
is easy to kill individuals but you cannot kill the ideas. Great empires
crumbled but the ideas survived. Bourbons and Czars fell while the
revolution marched ahead triumphantly.
We are sorry to admit that we who attach so great a sanctity to human
life, who dream of a glorious future, when man will be enjoying perfect
peace and full liberty, have been forced to shed human blood. But the
sacrifice of individuals at the altar of the great revolution that will
bring freedom to all, rendering the exploitation of man by man impossible,
is inevitable.
Long Live The Revolution!
Sd/- Balraj
Commander-in-Chief”
The Conclusion:Idea Endures:-
Meri Hawa Mein Rahegi Khyal Kee Bijli,
Ye Musht-e-Khak Hai fanni, Rahe, Rahe, Na Rahe.
(My idea shall endure and continue to dazzle the air like lightening, this
handful of dust, mortal as it is, may or may not).
This Urdu couplet, a favourite of the revolutionaries truly sums up the
meaning of their precious lives and heroic deaths.
The revolutionaries of the 20th Century rightly attached the highest
importance to communal harmony. Secularism was a cardinal principle in
their ideology and they treated it as the ‘Nonnegotiable Clause’ of the
Ideology of Revolution.
The revolutionaries of the HSRA were diehard humanists and true
secularist. They displayed the ideals of the revolutionary movement on the
national screen painted in their own blood. Secularism became an integral
part of the patriotic outlook. The words of Bhagat Singh and his Comrades
became the Writing on the Wall. The ideas of these martyrs were
incorporated in the Indian Social Contract and became part of the nation’s
consciousness. These ideals find their reflection in the Preamble to the
Constitution of India.
In sum, the revolutionaries not only pioneered the goal of complete
independence but also preceded the mainstream political parties in
articulating secularism in its pristine form in which it was eventually
incorporated in our Constitution.
Dated: 20.10.2012
(R.S.CHEEMA)
SENIOR ADVOCATE
CHANDIGARH
Seminar on
Secularism: The Relevance and the Reality
Appendix ‘A’
READING LIST OF BHAGAT SINGH
A. The names of books and authors, read by Bhagat Singh, available from
his unpublished diary, with his personal comments on the margins.
1. Capital by Karl Marx
2. The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State by Friedrich
Engels
3. Where is Britain Going? By Leon Trotsky
4. A World History for the Workers by Alfred Barton
5. Rights of Man by Tom Paine
6. The Cry for Justice by Upton Sinclair
7. From Marx to Lenin by Morris Hillquit
8. The Iron Heel by Jack London
9. Wastes of Capitalism by Theodor Hertzka
10. Children of the Dead End by Patrick MacGill
11. Poverty and Riches by Scott Nearing
12. The Lessons of October by Leon Trotsky
13. Les Miserables by Victor Hugo
14. Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky
15. The House of the Dead by Fyodor Dostoevsky
16. The New Spirit by B C Pal
17. Indian Unrest by Valentine Chirol
18. Tracticus Politicus by Spinoza
19. Citizen and Man by Emile
20. Essays in Application by Henry Van Dyke
B. The list of books read, available from the letter of Bhagat Singh,
written to his friend Jaidev from the prison on July 24, 1930:
1. Militarism
2. Why Men Fight
3. Soviets at Work
4. Collapse of the Second International
5. Left Wing Communism
6. Mutual Aid
7. Fields, Factories and Workshops
8. Civil War in France
9. Land Revolution in Russia
10. Theory of Historical Materialism
C. The names of authors and poets read by Bhagat Singh, available from his
diary:
Bertrand Russell, JS Mill, Thomas Jefferson, Karl Kautsky, Nikolai
Bukharin, Edmund Burke, VI Lenin, Thomas Aquinas, John Locke, Austin,
Georges Danton, Charles Edward Russell, Omar Khayyam, James Russell
Lowell, William Wordsworth, Lord Tennyson, VN Figner, Rabindranath Tagore,
NA Morozov, Horace Greeley, Wendell Phillips, Frederic Harrison, J
Campbell, George D Herrson, Herbert Spencer, Henry Maine, Jean-Jacques
Rousseau.
References:
1. Atamkatha (Autobiography) of Sant Baba Wasakha Singh, Edited by
Professor Malwinderjit Singh, Published by Dharam Parchar Committee, SGPC,
Amritsar, May, 2001.
2. Jeewan Sangram and other writings of Baba Sohan Singh Bakhna, Balraj
Sahni Yadgar Parkashan.
3. Atamkatha (Autobiography) of Gadri Baba Harnam Singh, Edited by
Professor Malwinderjit Singh, published by Lokgeet Parkashan, Chandigarh,
2011.
4. Judgment in Supplementary Kakori Conspiracy Case decided on 13.7.1927
JRW Bannet ICS, Special Judge, Lucknow.
5. Autobiography of Ram Parsad Bismil (English Translation) published
Unistar Books Pvt. Ltd., Chandigarh, 2007.
6. Memoirs of Asfhaquallah Amar Saheed Asfhaquallah Khan (Biography)
Edited by Pt. Banarsi Dass Chaturvedi, Raj Kamal Parkashan, New Delhi,
2008.
7. Sinhawlokan by Yash Pal, Lok Bharti Parkash, Allahabad, 1994.
8. To Make the Deaf Hear by S. Irfan Habib, Published by Three Essays
Collective, Gurgaon, 2007.
9. A Biography of Bhagwati Charan Vohra and Durga Bhabi, Published by
Unistar Books Pvt. Ltd., Chandigarh, 2012.
10. Sansmritiyan Krantikari Shaheedon Ke Samsmaran by Shiv Verma,
Published by Rahul Foundation, Lucknow, January 2006.
11. Yash Ki Dharohar by Bhagwan Dass Mahaur Sadashiv Rao Malkapurkar and
Shiv Verma, published by Atma Ram and Sons, Delhi, 1991.
Revolutionary Freedom Struggle and Evolution of Secularism
Paper Read by Sh. R.S. Cheema, Senior Advocate, at a Seminar on
‘Secularism: The Relevance and the Reality’ on October 20, 2012 by Indian
Association of Lawyer and All Indian Progressive Forum
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